Chapter I: The Birth of Art: Africa, Europe, and the Near East in the Stone Age pt.III Neolithic Art

       The Ice Recedes
At about 9,000 B.C, people began to settle down into the Mesolithic Era. The ice that covered much of Northern Europe began to melt. Geographically, climatically and biologically the changes during this period transformed the world from the time of the cavemen to the world of today. In the Paleolithic Era, the people had learned to abstract their world by making pictures of it, most likely an attempt at controlling the environment. In the Neolithic period, humans became more capable of actually controlling their world. What separates each different area are advancements in technology. The Paleolithic Era was marked by food gathering, and simple food production. The Mesolithic Era was reminiscent of intensified food gathering and the taming of the dog. Finally, the Neolithic Era was marked by the beginning of agriculture and stock raising. This new period made its first appearance in the Near East.

       Ancient Near East
       The Dawn of Civilization
Traces of human life have been found in the grassy uplands bordering river valleys. THese regions provided the peoples with conditions that jump started the development of agriculture. Plants such as wheat and barley were plentiful, along with herds of goats, sheep and pigs-animals that were easily domesticated. There was also a favorable amount of rainfall for raising crops. The Neolithic people were the pioneers of government, law, religion, writing, measurement, calculation, pottery, metal working and weaving.

       A Stone Tower Ten Thousand Years Old
By 7,000 B.C agriculture was well under way in the Near East. Although no food remains were found, the rise of towns such as Jericho is proof enough. Jericho is located in a plateau in the Jordan River valley with a spring and was occupied at 9,000 B.C. A thousand years later, the village underwent development when a new Neolithic town was built. Its houses sat on round stone foundations and had roofs of branches covered in earth. As the town grew and powerful neighbors established themselves, a need for protection presented itself. By about 7,500 permanent stone fortifications were built.

Great stone tower built into the settlement wall, Jericho

ca. 8,000-7,000 B.C

The 2,000 inhabitants surrounded themselves with a wide, rock-cut ditch and a five-foot-thick wall. Into this was was built a stone tower, twenty eight feet high. Not enough is known about this tower, except that it was a technological achievement, considering the tools that were available at the time.

       Skulls with Restored Faces

By 7,000 B.C new settlers arrived in an abandoned Jericho site. They brought a culture along with them, making shrines and statuettes of women, goddesses and animals. Most unusual is a group of human skulls reconstructed in plaster, modeled to appear life like

Human skull with restored features, Jericho

ca. 7000-6000 B.C

Features molded in plaster, painted, and inlaid with shell. Archeological Museum, Amman

They contain seashells for eyes and painted hair. These groups of skulls aren't portraits, per say-for they depict generic features. Because these heads were divorced from the body, reconstructed in plaster and buried separately, archeologists believe that the people of Neolithic Jericho must have attached a special importance to the heads. Some scholars believe they are somehow connected to a belief in an afterlife. These heads, however, mark the beginnings of monumental sculpture in the ancient Near East.

       A Neolithic Town With No Streets

 Excavations at Hacilar, Catal Huyuk, Anatolia show that the central Anatolian plateau was the site of a flourishing Neolithic culture between 7,000 and 5,000 B.C. The source of Catal Huyuk's wealth was trade in obsidian, a stone highly valued by tool and weapon makers alike. Like Jericho, Catal Huyuk seems to have been one of the first experiments in urban living. The regularity of its plan suggests that the town was built according to some predetermined scheme. Another peculiar feature is the settlement's complete lack of streets.

Schematic reconstruction drawing of a section of Level VI, Catal Huyuk, Turkey

ca. 6000-5900 B.C (after J. Mellaart).

The adjoined houses had no doors. There were openings on the roof that served as a means of entering and leaving the house, as well as some kind of ventilation. The attached buildings were more stable than freestanding structures, and formed a perimeter wall well suited to defense against natural of human forces. A variation of this type of building is the shrine. the shrines, when compared to houses, are more richly decorated with wall paintings, plaster reliefs, animal heads and bucrania (bovine skulls), statues of stone or terracotta.

       Hunting Deer in Neolithic Turkey

 Hunting undoubtedly still played an important part in the early Neolithic economy, and as a food source. The significance of hunting was even apparent in paintings. What is surprising is the regular appearance of humans in their art works.

Deer hunt, detail of a copy of a wall painting from Level III, Catal Huyuk, Turkey

ca. 5750 B.C

In Neolithic paintings, human themes and concerns and action scenes with humans dominating animals are central. In the Catal Huyuk hunt, the group of hunters, an organized hunting party shows a tense exaggeration of movement and a rhythmic repetition of basic shapes. The painter took care to distinguish important details such as bows, arrows, garments and heads. This Neolithic painter placed the head in profile for the same reason their Paleolithic ancestors depicted their subjects in profile-fore the informative view. Here, the torso is presented from the front, again the most informative view point. The legs and arms are then portrayed from the profile. This composite view of the human body is artificial, because the human body cannot make an abrupt ninety degree shift at the hips-and yet it is descriptive in what a human body looks like. A composite view or twisted perspective was preferred by artists until 500B.C when the Greeks rejected it. The technique of painting also evolved drastically since Paleolithic times. The pigments were applied with a brush to a background of white plaster. The preparation of the wall surface in it strikes contrast to the direct application of pigment to rock. This was another step toward easel painting with a frame that defines its limits.

       The First Landscape?
The painting at one of the shrines of Catal Huyuk is considered the world's first landscape, or  a work of art depicting a scene in nature with no story.

Landscape with volcanic eruption (?), detail of a copy of a wall painting from Level VII, Catal Huyuk, Turkey

ca. 6150 B.C

This painting is created at about 6150 B.C In the foreground is a town, with the rectangular houses neatly laid out side by side. Behind the town appears a two peaked mountain. Art historians believe the dots and lines issuing from the higher of the two caves represent a volcanic eruption. They have also identified the mountain as the Hasan Dag. Since the painting was located in a shrine, historians believe that the eruption had some sort of religious meaning,the mural may not be a pure landscape. The findings at Catal Huyuk give the impression of a prosperous and orderly society. The conversion to an agricultural economy had been completed by about 5700 B.C

       Western Europe

       A Neolithic Astronomical Observation

Whereas in the Paleolithic Era, in Western Europe, where paintings and sculptures were widely seen, no great achievements in europe could compare to those found in the Near East. However, at about 4,000 B.C, the local Neolithic peoples developed a monumental architecture employing massive rough-cut stones. Some stones, exceeding ten feet high and fifty tons are called megaliths, hence the culture that crated them are considered megalithic. These megaliths are sometimes found arranged in a circle known as a cromlech or a henge, often surrounded by a ditch. The most imposing today, is Stonehenge.

Stonehenge, Salisbury Plain, Wiltshire, England, aerial view

ca. 2550-1600 B.C Circle is 97' diameter; trilithons approx. 24' high

Located on the Salisbury Plain in Southern England, Stonehenge is a complex of rough-cut sarsen, a type of sandstone, and bluestones, or volcanic rock. The Outermost ring is made of large monoliths of sarsen capped by lintels, or a stone beam, used to span an opening. Next, there is a ring of blue stones which circle a horseshoe, open facing East, of trilithons, or three stone constructions. Five lintel topped pairs of the largest sarsens. Standing apart to the East is the heel stone which marks the place the sun rose at the midsummer solstice. Like most artifacts found at so early a dat, it is not known for sure what the exact purpose of Stonehenge was. It seems to be some kind of observatory. However, as impressive as this prehistoric achievement is, at around the same time in other places around the world, civilizations were flourishing. In Mesopotamia, people had been building multi-chambered temples on huge platforms. In Egypt, the great stone pyramids were already many centuries old. These civilizations already had a written history, and that is our next destination.

Chapter I: The Birth of Art: Africa, Europe, and the Near East in the Stone Age pt.II Paleolithic Art

The millennia following 30,000 B.C flourished in creativity and art, thanks being to the Cro-Magnon peoples who replaced the Neanderthals during the Old Stone Age. The people from the Paleolithic period are responsible for crafting tools of art from stone, The Cro-Magnons were the first to go beyond the recognition of human and animal forms to the representation of humans and animals.

Africa

Some of the earliest paintings yet discovered have come from Africa, and like the pebble from Makapansgat, the oldest African paintings were portable objects. A good example of this would be slabs of stone with an image painted on it.

Animal facing left, from the Apollo 11 Cave, Namibia, ca. 23,000B.C
Charcoal on stone, approx. 5"X 4 1/4". State Museum of Namibia, Windhoek.

Early African artists would, like all artists, ask themselves questions as to what they would paint. "What shall be my subject?" and "How shall I represent it?". According to archeological findings, the subjects of a great majority of Paleolithic paintings have been animals, such as bison, mammoths, ibexes and horses. Infrequently were humans ever depicted, and even more rarely were men ever portrayed. Virtually every animal in Paleolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic paintings were portrayed in a harshly similar manner, in a strict profile. This way, the head, tail, and legs could be bet seen. A very long time passed before "variety" or "originality" came into play.

Western Europe

One of the first sculptures yet discovered was  an ivory statuette, created in about 30,000 B.C, found in a cave at Hohlenstein-stadel in Germany. What is special bout this specific about statue, is that it represents something out of the artist's own imagination, a human, sex unidentifiable, with the head of a feline.

Human with feline head, from Hohlenstein-Stadel, Germany,
ca. 30,000-28,000 B.C. Mammoth ivory, 11 5/8" hihg. Ulmer Museum, Ulm.

Composite creations have been common in the Near East and Egypt, yet surviving texts allow historians to name the figures and pinpoint their roles in religion and mythology. In the Stone Age, however, it is impossible to know exactly what the artist had in mind with this statue.

Women in Paleolithic Art

In the earliest art, human depictions ere almost exclusively women. These are called "Venuses" by archaeologists, paying homage to the Greco-Roman goddess who was almost always depicted nude. This nickname is misleading, however, because there is no evidence that the figurines are representing a deity, or even if the people of The Stone Age had an organized religion. A good example of this type of art is the "Venus of Willendorf".

Nude woman (Venus of Willendorf), from Willendorf, Austria,
ca. 28,000-25,000 B.C. Limestone, approx. 4 1/4" high. Naturhistorisches Museum, Vienna

The shape of the woman depicted is quite unusual, and yes, there has been slenderer women depicted. The exaggerated proportions are most likely a call to a woman's fertility. Likewise, the preponderance of women over men in Paleolithic art seems to indicate a preoccupation with women, whose child-bearing capabilities ensured the survival of the species.

A Rock Shelter in France

Another type of Paleolithic art is the relief sculpture.

Woman holding a bison horn, from Laussel, Dordogne, France,
ca. 25,000 -20,000 B.C. Painted limestone, approx 1' 6" high. Musée d'Aquitaine, Bordeaux.

The Venus of Laussel was found by the entrance of a cave, a common dwelling place for early humans. Her figure is similar in form to the Venus of Willendorf, with the hips, belly, and breasts exaggerated. Her left hand rests on her seemingly pregnant midsection, whilst her right hand holds a horn. The meaning of the horn is yet unknown and currently debatable. 

Women and Bison in French Caves 

Many relief sculptures were found in French caves. One of the most remarkable rock-cut relifs is the Venus of La Magdelaine. 

Reclining woman, rock-cut relief, La Magdelaine cave, Tarn, France

ca. 12,000B.C. Approx. half life size

This sculpture is typical of many Paleolithic reliefs in that the artist used the natural contours of he stone wall as a basis for sculpting. Another form of Paleolithic relief sculptures are (additive?) mounted clay forms on a freestanding stone.

Two bison, reliefs in cave at Le Tuc d'Audoubert, Ariege, France, 

ca. 15,000-10,000 B.C. Caly, each approx. 2' long.

An artist has modeled two clay bisons, once more in profile, against a freestanding rock. Notice how, as time passed that art has become more and more detailed and realistic.


        An Antler Becomes a Bison
As time passes by, stone sculptures became more 'realistic' and detailed. In 12,000 B.C from La Madeleine France, is a newer example.

Bison with turned head, from La Madeleine, Dordogne, France

ca. 12,000 B.C Reindeer horn, approx. 4'' long. Musée des Antiquités Nationales

Notice here the details of the antlers, eyes and snout, even the coat of the bison. Notice also, how the bison's head is turned a full 180 degrees, purposely to maintain it in a strict profile.

       A Little Girl Discovers Paintings in a Cave

An amateur architect, Don Marcelino Sanz de Satuola, and his little daughter Maria were one day exploring caves in his estate, where he had previously found flint and carved bone. That was when Maria had seen the painted beasts.

Bison, detail of a painted ceiling in the Altamira cave, Santander, Spain, ca. 12,000-11,000 B.C

Each bison approx. 8' long.

" Materials and Techniques: Paleolithic Cave Painting

The caves of Altamira, Lascaux, and other sites in prehistoric Europe had served as underground water channels, a few hundred to several thousand feet long. They are often choked, sometimes almost impassably, by deposits, such as stalactites and stalagmites. Far inside these caverns, well removed from the cave mouths earl humans sometimes chose for habitation, hunter-artists painted pictures on the dark walls. For light, they used tiny stone lamps filled with marrow or fat, with a wick, perhaps, of moss. For drawing, they used chunks of red and yellow ocher. For painting, they ground these same ochers into powders they blew onto the walls or mixed with some medium, such as animal fat, before applying. Recent analyses of the pigments used who they comprise many different minerals mixed according to different recipes, attesting to a technical sophistication surprising at so early a date. Large flat stones served as the painters' palettes. the artists made brushes from reeds or bristles and used a blowpipe of reeds or hollow bones to trace outlines of figures and to put pigments on out-of-reach surfaces. Lascaux has recesses cut into the rock walls seven or more feet above the floor that once probably anchored a scaffolding that supported a platform made of saplings lashed together. This permitted the painters access to the upper surfaces of the caves. Despite the difficulty of the work, modern attempts at replicating the techniques of Paleolithic painting have demonstrated that skilled artists could cover large surfaces with images in less than a day."


Cave paintings, much like the early sculpture, depicted animals still in a strict  profile. The animals in that painting don't stand on a common ground line and they don't have a common orientation. they seem to be floating. the paintings have no setting, no background. The painter was probably not concerned with where the animals were. Actually, many seem to be painted randomly, just as figures in space. the reason behind these cloud-like images are still hazy. There are, however some theories.


     "  Art and Society: Animals and Magic in the Old Stone Age
From the moment in 1879 that cave paintings were discovered at Altamira, scholars have wondered why the hunter-artists of the Old Stone Age decided to cover the walls of dark caverns with animal images. Various answers have been given, including that they were mere decoration, but this theory cannot explain the narrow range of subjects or the inaccessibility of many of the paintings. In fact, the remoteness and difficulty of access of many of the cave painting sites and the fact they appear to have been used for centuries are precisely what have led many scholars to suggest that the prehistoric hunters attributed magical properties to the images they painted. According to this argument, by confining animals to the surfaces of their cave walls, the artists believed they were bringing the beasts under their control. Some have even hypothesized that rituals or dances were performed in front of the images and that these rites served to improve the hunters' luck. Still others have stated that the painted animals may have served as teaching tools to instruct new hunters about the character of the various species they would encounter or even to serve as targets for spears. By contrast, some scholars have argued that the magical purpose of the paintings was not to facilitate the destruction of bison and other species. Instead, they believe prehistoric painters created animal images to assure the survival of the herds Paleolithic peoples depended on for their food supply and for their clothing. A central problem for both the hunting-magic and food-creation theories is that the animals that seem to have been diet staples of Old Stone Age peoples are not those most frequently portrayed. At Altamira, for example, faunal remains show that red deer, not bison, were eaten. Other scholars have sought to reconstruct an elaborate mythology based on the cave paintings, suggesting that paleolithic humans believed they had animals ancestors. Still others have equated certain species with men and others with women and found some sexual symbolism in the abstract signs that sometimes accompany the images. Almost all of these theories have been discredited over time, and art historians must admit that no one knows the intent of these paintings. In fact, a single explanation for all Paleolithic murals, even paintings similar in subject, style, and composition is unlikely to apply universally. For now, the paintings remain an enigma."


       The Birth of Writing? 

Spotted horses and negative hand imprints, wall painting in the cave at Pech-Merle, Lot, France,

ca. 22,000  B.C. Approx 11' 2'' long.

Although we cannot say for sure exactly what the paintings mean or what they stand for, it is unquestionable that they had some level of significance. Right by the cave paintings themselves, are some more markings. they look like dots, squares, checks and arrows. Some archeologists believe that this is the first form of writing ever experienced by man. Another reoccurring symbol is a hand print, both positive and negative. A positive hand print would be when an artist would dip his hands in ink, then pressed it against a wall. A negative hand print is when an artist would press his hand to the wall, then use the pigments around it, much like a stencil. the meaning of these hand prints, just like the meaning of the paintings they adorn, are yet unknown.


       The "Running of the Bulls" at Lascaux
Probably the most famous Paleolithic caves are the ones at Lascaux. Many of the painted chambers are located deep within the cave and lead to- the Hall of the Bulls.

Hall of the Bulls (left wall), Lascaux, Dordogne, France

ca. 15,000-13,000 B.C Largest  Bull approx. 11'6'' long.

There are depictions of many animals, mostly bulls, drawn differently, some in black figure (silhouette) and others in red figure (outline) were painted a dozen millennia later.

Another feature of the Lascaux painting that deserves attention is the depiction of some bulls. the way the artist represented their horns is in a way that art historians call twisted perspective. It is 'twisted' because viewers see the head in profile, but the hors from the front. thus, the artists' view is not so strictly optical, or seen from only one side.

Aurochs, horses, and rhinceroses, wall painting in Chauvet Cave, Vallon-Pont d'Arc, Ardeche, France

ca. 30,000-28,000 B.C Approx. half life size

        Paleolithic Narrative Art?

Rhinoceros, wounded man, and disembowled bison, painting in the well,

Lascaux, Dordogne, France, ca. 15,000-13,000 B.C Bison approx. 3' 8'' Long.

This is one curious piece of art. To the left of this painting is a rhinoceros, with two rows of three dots behind it with an unknown meaning. To the right we see a disemboweled bison, crudely painted, yet the artist captured the bristling rage of the animal, whose bowels are hanging out in a heavy coil. In the center  there is a bird-faced (masked?) man, one of the first times a male was portrayed. His position is ambiguous, is he wounded, dead or tilted back and unharmed? Do the staff (?) with the bird on top and spear belong to him?  Was it the rhinoceros or the man who disemboweled the bison? If these figures were painted to depict a collection of events or a story, then this would be classified as a narrative. Like most paintings in cavern walls, the meaning is still hidden within the fading brush strokes.

 

Chapter I: The Birth of Art: Africa, Europe, and the Near East in the Stone Age pt.I

What is art?

From Africa, we find the earliest evidence of human recognition of images in the natural environment, or the first examples of what people now call "art". In 1925, explorers unearthing a cave at Makapansgat in South Africa discovered traces of Australopithecus, a predecessor to modern humans, and a carved pebble that 'bears an uncanny resemblance to a human face'. According to these explorers, these pebbles were found some twenty miles away from the cave. Scientists have theorized that an early human, awestruck at the 'face' on the pebble brought it back to his dwelling for safekeeping.

For art historians to consider something, such as this pebble, "art", it must have been modified by humans, not simply stored or taken. Evidence indicates that not until three million years after this pebble was originally found, around 30.000 B.C did humans 'intentionally manufacture' sculptures and paintings. That is when the story of art begins.